183
Villages
07
Districts
50
GroupsThe State of Water, Sanitation, and Women's Empowerment
Households:
A total of 2,000 household surveys were completed with 2239 women.
At each home, the field team surveyed women 18 years or older, further specifying and identifying women who are either the primary caregiver for a child 0-5 in the household and/or the main food preparer for the household.
1000
Households
90
Villages
05
Districts
25
GroupsThe State of Water, Sanitation, and Women's Empowerment
Households:
A total of 1,000 household surveys were completed with 1138 women.
At each home, the field team surveyed women 18 years or older, further specifying and identifying women who are either the primary caregiver for a child 0-5 in the household and/or the main food preparer for the household.
1000
Households
93
Villages
02
Districts
25
GroupsThe State of Water, Sanitation, and Women's Empowerment
Households:
A total of 1,000 household surveys were completed with 1,101 women.
At each home, the field team surveyed women 18 years or older, further specifying and identifying women who are either the primary caregiver for a child 0-5 in the household and/or the main food preparer for the household.
69%
Adults in both states
22%
Children in both states
9%
Infants in both statesGender distribution
Wealth perception
Caste, Tribe & Class
Adults in both states
Children in both states
Infants in both states
Gender distribution
Wealth perception
Caste, Tribe & Class
Adults in both states
Children in both states
Infants in both states
Gender distribution
Wealth perception
Caste, Tribe & Class
2239
Women surveyed
37.2
Average age
88.5%
Married
10%
None of these roles
90%
Main food preparer
30%
Primary child caregiverRelationship to household
Household education
Women surveyed
Average age
Married
None of these roles
Main food preparer
Primary child caregiver
Relationship to household
Household education
Women surveyed
Average age
Married
None of these roles
Main food preparer
Primary child caregiver
Relationship to household
Household education
Respondent education
Improved water source access
Water source location
All water sources
Improved water sources
Water source access seasonality
Respondents were further queried on their access to their main water source, throughout the year and if partial year access, by season.
Dhunki, 39 years old
Latrine is available in many households, but water is not available. So how will they use latrine? One person needs at least one potful of water. So the facility is not usable.
Latrine is available in many households, but water is not available. So how will they use latrine? One person needs at least one potful of water. So the facility is not usable.
Water source access classification
Partial year access
Improved water source access
Water source location
All water sources
Improved water sources
Water source access seasonality
Respondents were further queried on their access to their main water source, throughout the year and if partial year access, by season.
Dhunki, 39 years old
Latrine is available in many households, but water is not available. So how will they use latrine? One person needs at least one potful of water. So the facility is not usable.
Latrine is available in many households, but water is not available. So how will they use latrine? One person needs at least one potful of water. So the facility is not usable.
Water source access classification
Partial year access
Water source access by type
Improved water source access
Water source location
All water sources
Improved water sources
Water source access seasonality
Respondents were further queried on their access to their main water source, throughout the year and if partial year access, by season.
Dhunki, 39 years old
Latrine is available in many households, but water is not available. So how will they use latrine? One person needs at least one potful of water. So the facility is not usable.
Latrine is available in many households, but water is not available. So how will they use latrine? One person needs at least one potful of water. So the facility is not usable.
Water source access classification
Partial year access
Water source access by type
WASH Access - Insight
There is a relationship between water shortage and latrine use. In the summer, some villagers in both districts expressed a scarcity of water, which made them unable to use their latrines. In these cases, they had to go outside.
Water Quality - Insight
There is a relationship between seasonality and water quality, particularly in Yavatmal. Several women from two different villages said they sometimes drink dirty water from the borewell in the summer. Others noted that after the rain, the borewell water can become turbid which increases the chance of diseases spreading.
Responsibility by gender
Water burden
The responsibility for collection of water for the household falls disproportionately on women. The time it takes to collect water also represents a greater opportunity cost associated with potential loss of wages for adult members of the household.
Time for water collection
On average for households who travel off their household premises to collect water, it takes 96 minutes per day.
24minutes per trip
4trips per day
Water collection time distribution
Wash anxiety/worry
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of concern about various aspects of household water and sanitation.
Water limits and consumption
Potential wages lost per month
Wages lost were calculated by applying average wage by gender to time lost due to water collection by adult women and men.
₹744 females
Responsibility by gender
Water burden
The responsibility for collection of water for the household falls disproportionately on women. The time it takes to collect water also represents a greater opportunity cost associated with potential loss of wages for adult members of the household.
Time for water collection
On average for households who travel off their household premises to collect water, it takes 96 minutes per day.
24minutes per trip
4trips per day
Water collection time distribution
Wash anxiety/worry
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of concern about various aspects of household water and sanitation.
Water limits and consumption
Potential wages lost per month
Wages lost were calculated by applying average wage by gender to time lost due to water collection by adult women and men.
₹744 females
Responsibility by gender
Water burden
The responsibility for collection of water for the household falls disproportionately on women. The time it takes to collect water also represents a greater opportunity cost associated with potential loss of wages for adult members of the household.
Time for water collection
On average for households who travel off their household premises to collect water, it takes 96 minutes per day.
24minutes per trip
4trips per day
Water collection time distribution
Wash anxiety/worry
Respondents were asked to indicate their level of concern about various aspects of household water and sanitation.
Water limits and consumption
Potential wages lost per month
Wages lost were calculated by applying average wage by gender to time lost due to water collection by adult women and men.
₹744 females
Water Satisfaction by Access Status
Water satisfaction
| State | Value |
|---|---|
| Madhya Pradesh | 80.9% |
| Maharashtra | 92.1% |
Loan intent
of non-adopters expressed intent to take a loan to finance this improvement
Veni, 39 years old
Yes. We get loan easily in Saving Groups and rate of interest is also less. If small amount needed at home, we can take loan from group.
Yes. We get loan easily in Saving Groups and rate of interest is also less. If small amount needed at home, we can take loan from group.
Water Satisfaction by Access Status
Water satisfaction
| State | Value |
|---|---|
| Dewas | 76.9% |
| Dhar | 81.2% |
| Indore | 87.9% |
| Khandwa | 84.0% |
| Sehore | 75.9% |
Intent to take a loan to improve water service
Water satisfaction & investment
For nearly every source of water, approximately 92% of respondents reported household satisfaction, which was confirmed in focus group discussions. Exception: Only 83.8% of 99 respondents reported satisfaction with their household's tubewell/borehole with a handpump. Prolonged scarcity and turbid water were mentioned as possible reasons for dissatisfaction with water access.
Water satisfaction by access status
Household intent to take a loan to improve water service
79.6%
said they didn't need a loan.Water Dissatisfaction
Qualitative data underscored the high satisfaction with water access.
Few FGD participants cited reasons for dissatisfaction
In Wardha, prolonged scarcity and turbid water were mentioned as possible reasons for dissatisfaction
In both districts, FGD participants indicated that seasonal scarcity was not much of an issue
WASH Improvement Barriers
No financial means
No interest in investing in WASH given general water scarcity
Village water facility improvement is seen as a responsibility of the government, requiring the involvement of the Gram Panchayat
Local government programs to finance latrines/water services for villagers renders individual investment unnecessary
Supply of WASH Financial Services
Saving groups are a key way to access loans for WASH and other household necessities. Most women were satisfied with their saving groups, citing ease of access and lower interest rates as positive sides and small loan amounts as negative.
Gram Panchyat (the local governing body) works to improve the village WASH situation, providing bleaching powder, water filters, pipe fittings, toilet or water facilities, etc
Frequency distributions by the other Water satisfactions
Water Satisfaction
Household Spending Priorities
Ramtirth, female, 23-38 years old
When we take [bank] loan, we have to go for 10 times because we have to document issues. For that it takes...months.
When we take [bank] loan, we have to go for 10 times because we have to document issues. For that it takes...months.
Barriers to WASH Financial Services
Bank loans require excessive documentation, lengthy procedures, multiple trips to the bank, land or property ownership, credit history and/or include tight repayment plans.
Handwashing
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Water treatment
Water storage
Human waste management
Dhunki, male, 18 - 38 years old
Water is life. It's cleanliness is important. How much cleanliness you maintain, that much will be the level of healthiness in your family. Diseases will not spread, household will be happy.
Water is life. It's cleanliness is important. How much cleanliness you maintain, that much will be the level of healthiness in your family. Diseases will not spread, household will be happy.
Handwashing
Water treatment
Water storage
Human waste management
Dhunki, male, 18 - 38 years old
Water is life. It's cleanliness is important. How much cleanliness you maintain, that much will be the level of healthiness in your family. Diseases will not spread, household will be happy.
Water is life. It's cleanliness is important. How much cleanliness you maintain, that much will be the level of healthiness in your family. Diseases will not spread, household will be happy.
Handwashing
Water treatment
Water storage
Human waste management
Household Spending Priorities
- FGD respondents noted the importance of water and sanitation. They also noted the repercussions of poor WASH practices on their children's or family's health, education, ability to work, and finances.
- However, they indicated that health and children's education were higher spending priorities.
Dhunki, male, 18 - 38 years old
Water is life. It's cleanliness is important. How much cleanliness you maintain, that much will be the level of healthiness in your family. Diseases will not spread, household will be happy.
Water is life. It's cleanliness is important. How much cleanliness you maintain, that much will be the level of healthiness in your family. Diseases will not spread, household will be happy.
Handwashing details
8 in 10
women in Maharashtra do not practice correct handwashing
Areas for improvement
of all women do not rub both hands together when washing
of all women do not dry hands hygienically after washing
of all women do not wash their hands before eating
Vignette on food preparers and child care givers
4 in 5
women who are main caregiver for a child (0-5) and/or the main preparer of food for a household do not practice proper handwashing technique
1 in 2
women who are both food preparer and primary child caregiver does not wash their hands after cleaning baby's bottom or disposing of child faces
Women's empowerment
Women's empowerment was explored through a set of questions querying respondents on their general self-efficacy and female agency in WASH decision-making in the household. Self-efficacy scores were generated through analysis of responses to a set of 10 standardized questions designed to estimate a female level of agency, ability to navigate challenges, and confidence. For agency in WASH decision-making, women were asked about a number of household WASH scenarios and asked if women, men, or a mix of the two were included in the process.
Self efficacy
The possible range of self-efficacy scores for each woman is 0-30. The higher the score, the higher the woman's self-efficacy, with the highest possible score being 30.
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Female agency in WASH
Responses were scored to rate households on female input on WASH decisions by establishing their input on all the decisions, a mix, or none of the decisions. The possible range of agency in WASH decision making is 0-100%.
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Empowerment on WASH decisions
Agency in WASH & self efficacy
No statistical relationship between self-efficacy and women's agency
Qualitative findings show that men and women generally agree that it is appropriate for women to inform decisions about household finances and spending. However, many emphasized that the decisions should ultimately be made together, or with final approval from the man.
"Empowerment" on the ground
Both women and men lacked basic knowledge of the meaning or the concept of women's empowerment.
Nearly all respondents looked favorably upon the idea of women's empowerment and noted that the situation of women has progressed in recent years, although some men and women acknowledged that women were not fully "empowered" yet.
Many women noted that saving groups aided in female collective action, individual confidence, and decision-making. Saving groups have led, for example, to sanitation campaigns, liquor bans, and local business development in many of the villages.
Nandori, female, 23-38 years old
If male person available in her family so he will take economic decision. If male person not available in her family so she will definitely take economic decision.
If male person available in her family so he will take economic decision. If male person not available in her family so she will definitely take economic decision.
Dhunki, male, 18-38 years old
Women must be given rights. When she will go out, she will learn, enter the flow of life, will do transactions, she will learn, become capable, strong. Same experience she will share with others. Today's women is not behind on any fronts. She can do everything.
Women must be given rights. When she will go out, she will learn, enter the flow of life, will do transactions, she will learn, become capable, strong. Same experience she will share with others. Today's women is not behind on any fronts. She can do everything.
Women's empowerment
Women's empowerment was explored through a set of questions querying respondents on their general self-efficacy and female agency in WASH decision-making in the household. Self-efficacy scores were generated through analysis of responses to a set of 10 standardized questions designed to estimate a female level of agency, ability to navigate challenges, and confidence. For agency in WASH decision-making, women were asked about a number of household WASH scenarios and asked if women, men, or a mix of the two were included in the process.
Self efficacy
The possible range of self-efficacy scores for each woman is 0-30. The higher the score, the higher the woman's self-efficacy, with the highest possible score being 30.
Female agency in WASH
Responses were scored to rate households on female input on WASH decisions by establishing their input on all the decisions, a mix, or none of the decisions. The possible range of agency in WASH decision making is 0-100%.
Contributing factors to self efficacy
- A woman who comes from a household where the highest level of education is a high school or university degree is more likely to score in the highest self-efficacy band, compared to a woman in a household with lower educational achievement (51% of university educated households feature women scoring in the highest band vs. 39% of those with no schooling).
- A woman is twice as likely to be in a higher self-efficacy band if a household identifies as rich versus poor (80% vs 40%).
Female agency in WASH
Analysis for this study revealed that women's self-efficacy is not correlated with greater agency in WASH-decision making. Higher self-efficacy scores do not result in more involvement in household WASH decisions. For additional information on methodology, analysis, and documentation, please view the baseline report accessible through the button labeled "Download the Report" on the upper right corner of this browser.
Empowerment on WASH decisions
Women's empowerment
Women's empowerment was explored through a set of questions querying respondents on their general self-efficacy and female agency in WASH decision-making in the household. Self-efficacy scores were generated through analysis of responses to a set of 10 standardized questions designed to estimate a female level of agency, ability to navigate challenges, and confidence. For agency in WASH decision-making, women were asked about a number of household WASH scenarios and asked if women, men, or a mix of the two were included in the process.
Self efficacy
The possible range of self-efficacy scores for each woman is 0-30. The higher the score, the higher the woman's self-efficacy, with the highest possible score being 30.
Female agency in WASH
Responses were scored to rate households on female input on WASH decisions by establishing their input on all the decisions, a mix, or none of the decisions. The possible range of agency in WASH decision making is 0-100%.
Female agency in WASH
Analysis for this study revealed that women's self-efficacy is not correlated with greater agency in WASH-decision making. Higher self-efficacy scores do not result in more involvement in household WASH decisions. For additional information on methodology, analysis, and documentation, please view the baseline report accessible through the button labeled "Download the Report" on the upper right corner of this browser.
No correlation between self-efficacy score and:
- Respondent age
- Household wealth status
- Respondent education
- Household education
In 83.4% of households, women are involved in a mix or all household WASH decisions.
Empowerment on WASH decisions
Decision Making by ethnicity
Improved sanitation facilities
Sanitation facility by type
Sanitation facilities
Improved sanitation facilities
Sanitation facility by type
Sanitation facilities
Improved sanitation facilities
Sanitation facility by type
Sanitation facilities
Sanitation satisfaction
| State | Value |
|---|---|
| Madhya Pradesh | 71% |
| Maharashtra | 75.2% |
Loan intent
Intent to improve facility
Intent to improve facility by status
Sanitation satisfaction
| State | Value |
|---|---|
| Dewas | 70.8% |
| Dhar | 66% |
| Indore | 79.3% |
| Khandwa | 70.4% |
| Sehore | 74.1% |
Loan intent
Intent to improve facility
Intent to improve facility by status
WASH Improvement Barriers
FGD respondents mentioned that the desire and understanding for improved sanitation facilities is there, but barriers include:
- For the poorest families, investment might not possible due to lack of funds
- Responsibility of the government to make some of the needed improvements to the sanitation facilities in the villages, especially community-level changes requiring the help of the Gram Panchayat
Sanitation satisfaction
| State | Value |
|---|---|
| Wardha | 82.6% |
| Yavatmal | 70.5% |
Loan intent
Intent to improve facility
Intent to improve facility by status
WASH Improvement & Finance
There is a higher demand for sanitation improvements and greater appetite for investing in those improvements across the board in W+W program areas. However, a lack of household capital is the largest barrier to both water and sanitation improvements followed by those waiting for government subsidies (particularly on sanitation). On their own, the availability of WASH loans and financing seems unlikely to change demand for investment given these underlying barriers. Are there alternative models of WASH financing or local engagement mechanisms that would appeal to households in W+W implementation areas?
Productivity Over Health as a WASH Improvement Driver
The most effective drivers for motivating households to invest in WASH improvements are likely to be related to productivity and efficient use of resources (including time) and not worries or concerns about disease or health. While many programs seeks to reduce household concern over WASH management, increasing awareness of health risks associated with poor WASH practice may actually increase the concerns that households have related to those factors. It may also be useful to consider another indicators that monitor household awareness of both the risks of poor WASH access, adoption, and practice as well as the benefits of proper WASH.
Water Treatment Practice
A very high number of households practice incorrect water treatment practice or no treatment at all in W+W program areas. The use of proper filters would increase the number of households practicing correct practice (as many households are incorrectly using cloth). However, given low levels of household concern about the spread of disease through drinking water, this will likely also require awareness and education about the risks and benefits of proper water treatment.
Self-Efficacy & Female Agency in WASH-Decision Making
While most women do have input into their household WASH decisions, when financial resources are concerned, they are often stopped short of making the ultimate decisions. Given that many women's empowerment programs will likely have a more direct effect on women's self-efficacy through training and less influence over the household as a whole, additional engagement of men or families as a unit in women's empowerment or gender sensitivity trainings may potentially prime the pump for greater impact of women's efficacy and female agency in WASH at the household level.
Water Access
- There are high levels of unprotected dug wells in use in Maharashtra, with numbers in Yavatmal reaching nearly one in five households. Community wide solutions for those areas where unprotected dug wells are present should be prioritized to mitigate associated public health risks.
WASH Improvement & Finance
- There is a higher demand for sanitation improvements, and appetite for investing in those improvements across the board.
- Barriers to WASH improvements include lack of household capital, water scarcity, and reliance on government. Availability of WASH loans unlikely to change demand for investment given these factors.
- Loan interest and readiness is relatively high for both districts in Maharashtra, relative to the Madhya Pradesh findings. However, excessive documentation is a barrier to taking loans.
Water Scarcity, Sanitation, and Investment
- Seasonal water scarcity is an issue for a minority of households. However, villagers mentioned water scarcity as a reason that household members would fail to use a sanitation facility or to invest in WASH improvements.
Productivity: Health as a WASH Improvement Driver
- The most effective motivators for households to invest in WASH improvements are likely to be related to productivity and efficient use of resources (e.g., time) and not worries or concerns about disease or health.
WASH as a Priority
- Drinking water is a top spending priority for many households, but it competes with other expenses, especially children’s education and housing. About 6% of respondents indicated that drinking water was their household’s lowest spending priority.
WASH practice
-
There are concerningly low levels of incorrect WASH practice in both districts.
- Handwashing education should be prioritized, with particular emphasis on correct handwashing, hand drying and proper hand hygiene after child waste handling.
- WASH education programs should focus on awareness raising on sanitation and health risks of the use of the field or bush, targeting both adopter and non-adopter households since households with sanitation facilities report high instances of such practice among members of all ages and genders.
- Given the universally high percentages of incorrect water storage and treatment practice, community wide education and awareness raising for general public is recommended to address widely spread misconceptions.
Women's Agency in WASH
-
Most women do have input into their household WASH decisions, but men tend to make final decisions regarding use of financial resources.
- Women have the highest agency when it comes to water management decisions and improvement of water source that the program can work to further increase and leverage.